Welcome to PhytCore, the open online phytolith database platform.
“ PhytCore was born in 2011 with the aim of responding to the need for a new open collaborative environment and facilitating the participation of all researchers to discuss and find a common consensus on the identification and nomenclature of phytoliths. PhytCore users are invited to promote discussions and suggestions for each new phytolith morphotype added to the database, as well as to propose new classifications, which will be evaluated by a committee. Within each phytolith image there will be a space showing all the different nomenclatures used for that specific phytolith (when applicable), to facilitate the search and unification of the naming criteria. ”
The naming and description of the morphotypes included in Phytcore follow, whenever possible, the International Phytolith Nomenclature (ICPN 2.0) (Neumann et al., 2019). The ICPN 2.0 is available in the following link:.
Phytcore accepts the FAIR data principles (Findable, Accessible, Interoperable and Reusable) to promote maximum use of research data (Wilkinson et al., 2016) in phytolith studies. PhytCore platform aims to enable a systemic change of science practices to Open Science in archaeology.
What are phytoliths?
The term phytolith derives from the Greek and means “plant stone”. This term has traditionally been used to refer to particles produced by biomineralization processes in higher plants (Piperno, 1988; 2006). Silica phytoliths (opal, SiO 2 · nH 2 O) are produced by living plants.
Plants take up monosilicic acid (Si(OH) 4 ) from the soil along with water and other minerals and distribute it throughout the aerial parts of the plant via xylem. Specific transporters allow silicon (Si) to exit the xylem, which is then distributed to leaf tissues by the transpiration stream and deposited as silica (SiO 2 · nH 2 O) when water evaporates from the leaf surface (Yoshida et al; 1962). Silica is deposited in a wide range of plant tissues: roots, stems, leaves and inflorescences (Jones et al., 1963; Rosen & Weiner, 1994). For nucleation and growth to occur, biomineral formation requires a localized zone (a physical bounding geometry) that achieves and maintains sufficient supersaturation (Weiner & Dove, 2003). The first locations to silicify are specialized epidermal cells, such as hairs, papillae, and short cells. Three main places where silica is deposited are recognized, the cell wall, the cell lumen and in intercellular spaces (Hodson, 2016; Kumar et al.; 2017).
Phytolith chemistry depends on the cellular environment. For example, while in “cell wall phytoliths” silica is deposited in a carbohydrate matrix that gives the silica some order, “lumen phytoliths” are expected to contain more organic molecules (Hodson, 2016).
Phytolith production is influenced by genetic patterns, ecological conditions, and silica availability (Piperno, 1988, 2006). Not all plants produce phytoliths in the same amounts. For example, while monocot plants are rich in phytoliths, the wood of dicot plants produces very few phytoliths, and sometimes none (Albert & Weiner 2001; Tsartsidou et al., 2007). That is why, when performing modern phytolith benchmark studies, quantitative analyses should also be carried out to better understand phytolith production in each plant studied, considering plant types and different environmental conditions (Albert et al., 1999; Albert & Weiner, 2001; Albert et al., 2003 & Tsartsidou et al., 2007). In archaeological contexts, this information is essential, both to identify anthropogenic contributions of plants in a given context, and to determine in what proportion each plant or plant component is represented.
Chemical and physical properties of phytoliths:
- Opal (Biogenic Silica) structure is “amorphous” not crystalline. FTIR is an optimal tool to identify amorphous silica including phytoliths (Weiner, 2010). Phytoliths are isotropic. The refractive index ranges from 1.41 to 1.47 (Jones & Beavers, 1963).
- Phytoliths specific gravity is 1.5-2.3 (Jones & Beavers, 1963).
- Phytolith size varies from 2 to 100 microns or even larger.
- Phytolith resistance to pH is from 2 (very acid) to 8.5 (alkaline)(Weiner, 2010)
- Phytolith chemical composition often contains small amounts of other elements such as carbon (PhytOC), which is a potential tool for radiocarbon dating (Wilding, 1967; Piperno, 1990 & 2015; Kelly et al., 1991; Boaretto, 2015; Asscher et al., 2017; Zuo et al., 2017; & Zuo, & Lu, 2019).
Aspects to be considered when studying phytoliths:
As phytoliths reproduce the cellular tissue of different plant components, a single plant can produce different phytolith morphotypes. This is called multiplicity (Rovner, 1971; Vrydaghs et al., 2016). The association of different characteristic morphotypes of certain plants is crucial to better define the plant provenience. Similar plants can produce similar morphotypes. This is called redundancy (Rovner, 1971; Vrydaghs et al., 2016). The use of morphometric and/or SEM approaches combined with statistical tools (Pearsall et al., 1995; Ball et al., 1999; Berlin et al., 2003; Portillo et al., 2006; Ball et al., 2016, & Ball et al., 2017) has helped for many years to better discriminate between different plants. More recently, other approaches such as the use of confocal microscope (Gallaher et al., 2020) or Deep learning are being considered to overcome this aspect.
Phytoliths in archaeology
PhytCore was created as an archaeological tool (Albert et al., 2016). From the beginning,
PhytCore has aimed to help researchers recognize and name phytoliths using modern
reference plants that can be later compared to archaeologically recovered phytoliths. The
identification of phytoliths as direct evidence of plants in archaeological sites or
archaeologically related sites is crucial to better understand human-plants interaction
(Albert, et al. 1999; Albert, et al, 2000; Albert & Weiner, 2001; Albert, et al. 2003;
Tsartsidou et al., 2007; Alonso-Eguíluz et al., 2017; Esteban et al; 2017; Esteban et al.,
2018; Toffolo et al., 2018; Rodríguez-Cintas et al., 2020 & Weiner et al., 2020), but also to
reconstruct past landscapes and environmental conditions in particular time-periods
(Kurmann, 1985; Piperno, 1989; Barboni et al., 1999; Horrocks et al., 2000; Barboni et al.;
2007 & Neumann et al., 2009; Dickau et al., 2013 & Albert et al., 2015).
Some advantages related to the use of phytoliths in archaeological sites relates to:
- Phytoliths reproduce the cellular structure of plants (Piperno 1988; Rosen & Weiner, 1994), which makes them recognizable to the plant component and type of plant, even to the species level (Rosen, 1992; Piperno & Pearsall, 1993; Zhao et al., 1998; Ball et al., 1999; Albert et al., 2008).
- Unlike other archaeobotanical tools, phytoliths can identify different plant tissues of the same plant (Albert et al., 1999; Albert & Weiner, 2001; Madella et al., 2002; Albert et al., 2003; Piperno, 1988; 2006; Collura & Neumann, 2017 & Neumann et al., 2019) and therefore, can offer more complete information on the use of plants for specific activities (Albert et al., 1999; Albert et al.,2006; Esteban et al., 2017 & 2018.
- Their mineralogical composition (opal) makes them extremely resistant to post-depositional processes being found in deposits of up to million years of age (Strömberg, 2002 & 2004, Bamford et al., 2006 & WoldeGabriel et al., 2009).
On the other hand, silica phytoliths can also dissolve under high alkaline conditions (pH >8.5), particularly with circulating water (Iler, 1979; Albert et al., 2000; Farmer et al., 2005; Fraysse et al., 2006a & 2006b; Weiner, 2010 & Cabanes et al., 2011). The additional help of other tools such as Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) or micromorphology may help to better understand the depositional and posdepositional processes (Weiner et al., 1993, Goldberg et al., 2001; Weiner et al., 2002, Karkanas et al., 2002; Berna et al., 2004 & 2007; Chu et al., 2008; Weiner, 2010; Shahack-Gross et al., 2014 & Berna, 2017) that have affected the preservation of phytoliths (Karkanas et al., 2000; Albert & Cabanes, 2007; Weiner, 2010) and the reconstruction of pyrotechnological processes (Albert & Cabanes, 2007; Berna & Goldberg, 2007; Weiner, 2010; Mallol et al., 2013; Berna, 2017; Mallol et al., 2017 & Weiner et al., 2020).
References
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